scaruffi-piero-brainstorms-sistemic-knowledge-language
-
-
-
Language: Minds Speak
The History of Language: Why We Speak
Metaphor: How We Speak
Pragmatics: What We Speak
Meaning: Journey to the Center of the Mind
Self-organization and the Science of Emergence
Maturana, Humberto: AUTOPOIESIS AND COGNITION (Reidel, 1980)
Maturana, Humberto & Varela Francisco: THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE (Shambhala, 1992)
Varela, Francisco, Thompson Evan & Rosch Eleanor: THE EMBODIED MIND (MIT Press, 1991)
Varela, Francisco: PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGICAL AUTONOMY (North Holland, 1979)
VonUexküll, Jakob: UMWELT UND INNENWELT DER TIERE (1921)
Von Uexküll, Jakob: WORLDS OF ANIMALS AND WORLD OF MEN (1934)
-
Fonte: http://www.scaruffi.com/nature/eco12.html
The Nature of Consciousness
Piero Scaruffi
These are excerpts and elaborations from my book "The Nature of Consciousness"
Autopoiesis
From a different perspective, similar conceptual changes were advanced in the 1960s by the Chilean neurobiologist Humberto Maturana when he argued that the relationship with the environment molds the configuration of a cognitive system (“Biology of Cognition”, 1970). Maturana had worked with the US neurophysiologist Jerome Lettvin on the vision system of frogs, and they had reached the conclusion that the frog does not see “the world” but only what is relevant to the frog's survival, for example patterns of small moving shadows; and, by reacting to such patterns, the frog "catches" flies, its foodstuff ("What the Frog's Eye Tells the Frog's Brain", 1959).
"Autopoiesis" is the process by which living systems form and maintain their boundaries in the face of an ever-changing environment. It is the process by which an organism can continuously reorganize its own structure to interact with the world while remaining itself. Adaptation consists in regenerating the organism's structure so that its relationship to the environment remains constant. Autopoiesis is a pattern of organization common to all living systems.
Living systems are organized in closed loops. A living system is a network in which the function of each component is to create or transform other components while maintaining the circular organization of the whole. A cell exhibits autopoiesis, as does the Earth as a whole.
The product of a living system is a new organization of itself. It continually produces itself. The being and the doing are the same.
Autopoiesis is self-maintenance. Organisms use energy (mainly from light) and matter (water, carbon, nitrogen, etc) to continuously remake themselves.
Living systems are units of interaction. They only exist in an environment. They cannot be understood independently of their environment. They exhibit “exergonic” metabolism, which provides energy for the “endergonic” synthesis of polymers, i.e. for growth and replication.
In fact, the organism reorganizes based on environmental stimuli. The stimulus, therefore, can be viewed as that part of the environment that is absorbed by the structure.
The circular organization of living organisms constitutes a homeostatic system whose function is to maintain this very same circular organization. It is such circular organization that makes a living system a unit of interaction. At the same time, it is this circular organization that helps maintain the organism's identity through its interactions with the environment. Due to this circular organization, a living system is a self-referential system.
At the same time, a living system operates as an inductive system and in a predictive manner: its organization reflects regularities in the environment. Living systems are organized according to the principle: "what happened once will happen again".
Cognition is biological in the sense that the cognitive domain of an organism is defined by its interactions with the environment.
Cognition is the way in which an autopoietic system interacts with the environment (i.e., reorganizes itself). It is the result of the structural coupling with the environment that causes the continuous reorganization.
All living systems are cognitive systems. Cognition is simply the process of maintaining oneself by acting in the environment. Action and cognition cannot be separated: "all doing is knowing and all knowing is doing". Living is a process of cognition.
In summary, an autopoietic system is a network of transformation and destruction processes whose components interact to continuously regenerate the network. An autopoietic system holds constant its organization (its identity). Autopoiesis generates a structural coupling with the environment: the structure of the nervous system of an organism generates patterns of activity that are triggered by perturbations from the environment and that contribute to the continuing autopoiesis of the organism. Autopoiesis is necessary and sufficient to characterize a living system.
A living organism is defined by the fact that its organization makes it continually self-producing (autopoietic), i.e. not only autonomous but also self-referential ("the being and doing of an autopoietic system are inseparable").
Autopoiesis progressively generates more and more complex organisms and then intelligent organisms.
Multi-cellular organisms are born when two or more autopoietic units engage in an interaction that takes place more often than any of the interactions of each unit with the rest of the environment (a "structural coupling"). Inert elements then become macromolecules, and macromolecules become organic cells, and so on towards cellular organisms and intelligent beings.
A nervous system enables the living organism to expand the set of possible internal states and to expand the possible ways of structural coupling.
But the nervous system is self-referential: perception is not representation of external world. Perception does not represent, it specifies the external world.
No living system exists independent of cognition. Each cognitive act is not about knowing the environment, but about reorganizing oneself in accordance with the environment. The autopoietic system knows only itself. There is no representation of the external world. There is just reorganization of the system based on the external world.
Intelligent behavior originates in extremely simple processes: the living cell is nothing special, but many living cells one next to the other become a complex system thanks to autopoiesis.
Even life's origin can be easily explained: at some point in its history the Earth presented conditions that made the formation of autopoietic systems almost inevitable. The whole process of life depends not on the components of a living organism, but on its organization. Autopoiesis is about organization, not about the nature of the components.
Evolution is a natural drift, a consequence of the conservation of autopoiesis and adaptation. There is no need for an external guiding force to direct evolution. All is needed is conservation of identity and capacity for reproduction.
For Maturana, information is a pointless concept. Communication is not transmission of information but rather coordination of behavior among living systems.
Maturana extends the term "linguistic" to any mutually generated domain of interactions (any "consensual domain"). When two or more living organisms interact recurrently, they generate a social coupling. Language emerges from such social coupling. In this view, language is "connotative" and not "denotative". Its function is to orient the organism within its cognitive domain.
The point Maturana reiterates is that cognition is a purely biological phenomenon. Organisms do not use any representational structures: their intelligent behavior is due only to the continuous change in their nervous system as induced by perception. Intelligence is action. Memory is not an abstract entity but simply the ability to recreate the behavior that best couples with a recurring situation within the environment.
|
Further Reading (Click here for reviews of these books)
Allen, James: NATURAL LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDING (Benjamin Cummings, 1995)
Bach, Emmon: CATEGORIAL GRAMMARS (Reidel, 1988)
Baker, Mark: THE ATOMS OF LANGUAGE: THE MIND'S HIDDEN RULES OF GRAMMAR (Basic Books, 2001)
Bar-Hillel, Yehoshuas: LANGUAGE AND INFORMATION (Addison Wesley, 1964)
Bates, Elizabeth: THE EMERGENCE OF SYMBOLS (Academic Press, 1979)
Brown, Roger: A FIRST LANGUAGE (Harvard Univ Press, 1973)
Bresnan, Joan: MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS OF GRAMMATICAL RELATIONS (MIT Press, 1982)
Chierchia, Gennaro: MEANING AND GRAMMAR (MIT, 1990)
Chierchia, Gennaro: DYNAMICS OF MEANING (Univ of Chicago Press, 1995)
Chomsky, Noam: SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES (Mouton, 1957)
Chomsky, Noam: ASPECTS OF THE THEORY OF SYNTAX (MIT Press, 1965)
Chomsky, Noam: REFLECTIONS ON LANGUAGE (Pantheon, 1975)
Chomsky, Noam: THE LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF LINGUISTIC THEORY (University of Chicago Press, 1975)
Chomsky, Noam: RULES AND REPRESENTATIONS (Columbia Univ Press, 1980)
Chomsky, Noam: LECTURES ON GOVERNMENT AND BINDING (MIT Press, 1981)
Chomsky, Noam: KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE (Greenwood, 1986)
Devlin, Keith: GOODBYE DESCARTES (John Wiley, 1997)
Dowty, David: WORD MEANING AND MONTAGUE GRAMMAR (Reidel, 1979)
Dowty, David: INTRODUCTION TO MONTAGUE SEMANTICS (Reidel, 1981)
Fauconnier, Gilles: MENTAL SPACES (MIT Press, 1994)
Fauconnier, Gilles & Eve Sweetser: SPACES, WORLDS, AND GRAMMAR (Univ of Chicago Press, 1996)
Gazdar, Gerald: GENERALIZED PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR (MIT Press, 1985)
Goddard, Cliff & Wierzbicka, Anna: SEMANTIC AND LEXICAL UNIVERSALS (Benjamins, 1994)
Jackendoff, Ray: SEMANTICS AND COGNITION (MIT Press, 1983)
Jackendoff, Ray: SEMANTIC STRUCTURES (MIT Press, 1990)
Jackendoff, Ray: LANGUAGES OF THE MIND (MIT Press, 1992)
Katz, Jerrold: AN INTEGRATED THEORY OF LINGUISTIC DESCRIPTIONS (MIT Press, 1964)
Katz, Jerrold: SEMANTIC THEORY (Harper & Row, 1972)
Katz, Jerrold: THE METAPHYSICS OF MEANING (MIT Press, 1990)
Kendon, Adam: NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION, INTERACTION, AND GESTURE (Cambridge Univ Press, 1981)
Korzybski, Alfred: SCIENCE AND SANITY - AN INTRODUCTION TO NON-ARISTOTELIAN SYSTEMS AND GENERAL SEMANTICS (1933)
Lakoff, George: PHILOSOPHY IN THE FLESH (Basic, 1998)
Lehnert, Wendy: STRATEGIES FOR NATURAL LANGUAGE LANGUAGE (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1982)
Langacker, Ronald: FOUNDATIONS OF COGNITIVE GRAMMAR (Stanford Univ Press, 1986)
Lenneberg, Eric: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LANGUAGE (Wiley, 1967)
LePore, Ernest: NEW DIRECTIONS IN SEMANTICS (Academic Press, 1987)
Loritz, Donald: HOW THE BRAIN EVOLVED LANGUAGE (Oxford Univ Press, 1999)
Lycan, William: LOGICAL FORM IN NATURAL LANGUAGE (MIT Press, 1984)
McNeill, David: HAND AND MIND (Univ of Chicago Press, 1992)
Montague, Richard: FORMAL PHILOSOPHY (Yale University Press, 1974)
Nelson, Katherine: LANGUAGE IN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (Cambridge University Press, 1996)
Pinker, Steven: THE LANGUAGE INSTINCT (William Morrow, 1994)
Pinker, Steven: HOW THE MIND WORKS (Norton, 1997)
Sapir, Edward: LANGUAGE (1921)
Schank, Roger: CONCEPTUAL INFORMATION PROCESSING (North Holland, 1975)
Van Benthem, Johan: A MANUAL OF INTENSIONAL LOGIC (Univ Of Chicago Press, 1988)
Van Benthem, Johan: LANGUAGE IN ACTION (MIT Press, 1995)
Vygotsky, Lev: THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE (MIT Press, 1934)
Whorf, Benjamin Lee: LANGUAGE, THOUGHT AND REALITY (MIT Press, 1956)
Wierzbicka, Anna: SEMANTICS, CULTURE, AND COGNITION (Oxford University Press, 1992)
Wierzbicka, Anna: THE SEMANTICS OF GRAMMAR (Benjamins, 1988)
Wierzbicka, Anna: SEMANTIC PRIMITIVES (1972)
http://www.scaruffi.com/nature/language.html |
Further Reading (Click here for reviews of these books)
Bak, Per: HOW NATURE WORKS (Copernicus, 1999)
Buchler, Justus: METAPHYSICS OF NATURAL COMPLEXES (Columbia University Press, 1966)
Bunge Mario: TREATISE ON BASIC PHILOSOPHY (Reidel, 1974-83)
Cohen, Jack & Steward Ian: THE COLLAPSE OF CHAOS (Viking, 1994)
Coveney, Peter: FRONTIERS OF COMPLEXITY (Fawcett, 1995)
Dalenoort G.J.: THE PARADIGM OF SELF-ORGANIZATION (Gordon & Breach, 1989)
Dalenoort G.J.: THE PARADIGM OF SELF-ORGANIZATION II (Gordon & Breach, 1994)
Davies, Paul: GOD AND THE NEW PHYSICS (Penguin, 1982)
Eigen, Manfred & Schuster Peter: THE HYPERCYCLE (Springer Verlag, 1979)
Forrest, Stephanie: EMERGENT COMPUTATION (MIT Press, 1991)
Fuller, Buckminster: SYNERGETICS (Macmillan, 1975)
Fuller, Buckminster: COSMOGRAPHY ( Macmillan, 1992)
Gell-Mann, Murray: THE QUARK AND THE JAGUAR (W.H.Freeman, 1994)
Gleick, James: CHAOS (Viking, 1987)
Goldberg, David: GENETIC ALGORITHMS (Addison Wesley, 1989)
Haken, Hermann: SYNERGETICS (Springer-Verlag, 1977)
Kauffman, Stuart: THE ORIGINS OF ORDER (Oxford University Press, 1993)
Kauffman, Stuart: AT HOME IN THE UNIVERSE (Oxford Univ Press, 1995)
Koestler, Arthur: THE GHOST IN THE MACHINE (Henry Regnery, 1967)
Kuramoto, Yoshiki: CHEMICAL OSCILLATIONS, WAVES, AND TURBULENCE (Springer-Verlag, 1984)
Langton, Christopher: ARTIFICIAL LIFE (Addison-Wesley, 1989)
Laszlo, Ervin: INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMS PHILOSOPHY (Gordon & Breach, 1972)
Lewin, Roger: COMPLEXITY (Macmillan, 1992)
Lyapounov, Aleksander: The General Problem of the Stability of Motion (1892)
Mandelbrot, Benoit: THE FRACTAL GEOMETRY OF NATURE (W.H.Freeman, 1982)
Nicolis, Gregoire & Prigogine Ilya: SELF-ORGANIZATION IN NON-EQUILIBRIUM SYSTEMS (Wiley, 1977)
Nicolis, Gregoire & Prigogine Ilya: EXPLORING COMPLEXITY (W.H.Freeman, 1989)
Nicolis, Gregoire: INTRODUCTION TO NONLINEAR SCIENCE (Cambridge University Press, 1995)
Pattee, Howard: HIERARCHY THEORY (Braziller, 1973)
Prigogine, Ilya: INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS OF IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES (Interscience Publishers, 1961)
Prigogine, Ilya: NON-EQUILIBRIUM STATISTICAL MECHANICS (Interscience Publishers, 1962)
Prigogine, Ilya & Stengers Isabelle: ORDER OUT OF CHAOS (Bantham, 1984)
Salthe, Stanley: EVOLVING HIERARCHICAL SYSTEMS (Columbia University Press, 1985)
Salthe, Stanley: DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION (MIT Press, 1993)
Strogatz, Steven: SYNC (Hyperion, 2003)
Thom, Rene': MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF MORPHOGENESIS (Horwood, 1983)
Thom, Rene': STRUCTURAL STABILITY AND MORPHOGENESIS (Benjamin, 1975)
Toffoli, Tommaso & Margolus, Norman: CELLULAR AUTOMATA MACHINES (MIT Press, 1987)
Varela, Francisco: PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGICAL AUTONOMY (North Holland, 1979)
Von Bertalanffy, Ludwig: GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY (Braziller, 1968)
Weiss, Paul: THE SCIENCE OF LIFE (1973)
Waldrop, Mitchell: COMPLEXITY (Simon & Schuster, 1992)
Winfree, Arthur: THE GEOMETRY OF BIOLOGICAL TIME (Springer-Verlag, 1980)
Wiener, Norbert: NONLINEAR PROBLEMS IN RANDOM THEORY (MIT Press, 1958)
Zeeman, Erich-Christian: CATASTROPHE THEORY (Addison-Wesley, 1977)
|
Wedding Biology and Linguistics
In the following years, a number of psychologists, linguists and philosophers corroborated the overall picture of Chomsky’s vision.
The US linguist Ray Jackendoff thinks that the human brain contains innate linguistic knowledge and that the same argument can be extended to all facets of human experience: all experience is constructed by unconscious, genetically determined principles that operate in the brain. These same conclusions can be applied to thought itself, i.e. to the task of building concepts. Concepts are constructed by using some innate, genetically determined, machinery, a sort of "universal grammar of concepts". Language is but one aspect of a broader characteristic of the human brain.
According to the German linguist Eric Lenneberg, language should be studied as an aspect of our biological nature, in the same manner as anatomy. Chomsky's universal grammar is to be viewed as an underlying biological framework for the growth of language. Genetic predisposition, growth and development apply to language faculties just like to any other organ of the body. Behavior in general is an integral part of an organism's constitution.
Another implication of the standard theory (and particularly of its transformational component) is on the structure of the mind. The transformations can be seen as corresponding to mental processes, performed by mental modules (as in Jerry Fodor's computational theory of the mind), each independent of the others and each guided by elementary principles.
The Canadian psychologist Steven Pinker believes that children are "wired" to pay attention to certain patterns and to perform some operations with words. All languages share common features, suggesting that natural selection favored certain syntactic structures. Pinker identified fifteen modules inside the human mind, organs that account for instincts that all humans share.
Our genetic program specifies the existence and growth of the “language organs”, and those organs include at least an idea of what a language is. These organs are roughly the same for all humans, just like hands and eyes are roughly the same. This is why two people can understand each other even if they are using sentences that the other has never heard before.
In biological words, the universal grammar is the linguistic genotype. Its principles are invariant for all languages. The values of some parameters can be "selected" by the environment out of all valid values. This pseudo-Darwinian process is similar to what happens with other growth processes. The model used by Gerald Edelman both in his study of the immune system (the viruses select the appropriate antibodies out of those available) and in his study of the brain (experience selects the useful neural connections out of those available at birth) is quite similar.
A disturbing consequence of this theory is that our mental organs determine what we are capable of communicating, just like our arms or legs determine what movements we are capable of. Just like there are movements that our body cannot possibly make, there are concepts that our language can never possibly communicate.
Back to the beginning of the chapter "Language: Minds Speak" |
Human Language And Animal Language
Language is actually quite widespread in nature in its primitive form of communication (all animals communicate and even plants have some rudimentary form of interaction), although it is certainly unique to humans in its human form (but just like, say, chirping is unique to birds in its "birdy" form).
Language is very much a mirror image of the cognitive capabilities of the animal. Is human language really so much more sophisticated than other animals' languages?
Birds and monkeys employ a sophisticated system of sounds to alert themselves of intruders. The loudness and the frequency are proportionate to the distance and probably to the size of the intruder. Human language doesn't have such a sophisticated way of describing an intruder. Is it possible that human language evolved in a different way simply because we became more interested in other things, than in describing the size and distance of an intruder?
If language is about communicating, why is it that there are multiple human languages and not just one? Why is it so difficult to translate from one language to another? And why do we need translators in the first place? Is there any other animal that needs translators when moving from one territory to another?
There are three levels at which human language operates: the "what", the "where", the "why". What are you doing is about the present. Where are you going is about the future. Why are you going there is about the relationship between past and future. These are three different steps of communication. Organisms could communicate simply in the present, by telling each other what they are doing. This is what most machines do all the time when they get connected. Living organisms also move. Bees dance in order to communicate to other bees the location of food (“where?”). Humans are also interested in motives (“why?”) all the time. Without a motive a description often sounds incomplete. It is common in rural Southeast Asia to greet people by asking "what are you doing?" The other person will reply "I am rowing the boat". The next question will be "where are you going?" And the last question will be "why are you going there?" With these three simple questions the situation has been fully analyzed, as far as human cognition goes.
This does not mean that there could not be a fourth level of communication that we humans simply do not exhibit because it is beyond our cognitive capabilities.
There are other features that are truly unique to humans: clothes, artifacts, and, first and foremost, fire. Have you ever seen a lion wear the fur of another animal? Light a fire to warm up? Build a utensil to scratch its back? Why do humans do all of these things? Are they a consequence of our cognitive life, or is our cognitive life a consequence of these skills? One wonders if Sapir-Whorf’s principle applies only to language or, ultimately, to all behavior.
Further Reading (Click here for reviews of these books)
Axelrod, Robert: THE EVOLUTION OF COOPERATION (Basic Books, 1984)
Bateson Gregory: STEPS TO AN ECOLOGY OF MIND (Chandler, 1972)
Blackmore, Susan: THE MEME MACHINE (Oxford Univ Press, 1999)
Bloom, Howard: THE LUCIFER PRINCIPLE (Norton, 1995)
Bloom, Paul: Descartes' Baby (Basic, 2004)
Boyd, Robert and Richerson, Peter: CULTURE AND THE EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS (Univ of Chicago Press, 1985)
Boyd, Robert and Richerson, Peter: THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF CULTURES (Oxford Univ Press, 2005)
Brandon, Robert: GENES ORGANISMS POPULATION (MIT Press, 1984)
Brandon, Robert: ADAPTATION AND ENVIRONMENT (Princeton Univ Press, 1990)
Buss, David: THE EVOLUTION OF DESIRE (Basic, 1994)
Capra, Fritjof: THE WEB OF LIFE (Anchor Books, 1996)
Cauvin, Jacques: NAISSANCE DES DIVINITES, NAISSANCE DE L'AGRICULTURE (1994)
Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi & Feldman, Marcus: CULTURAL TRANSMISSION AND EVOLUTION (Princeton Univ Press, 1981)
Corning, Peter: NATURE'S MAGIC (Cambridge Univ Press, 2003)
Cosmides, Leda & Tooby, John: THE ADAPTED MIND (Oxford Univ Press, 1992)
Cronin, Helena: THE ANT AND THE PEACOCK (Cambridge University Press,1992)
Darwin, Charles: THE DESCENT OF MAN, AND SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX (1871)
Dawkins, Richard: THE SELFISH GENE (Oxford Univ Press, 1976)
Dawkins, Richard: THE BLIND WATCHMAKER (Norton, 1987)
Dawkins, Richard: RIVER OUT OF EDEN (Basic, 1995)
Dawkins, Richard: CLIMBING MOUNT IMPROBABLE (Norton, 1996)
De Waal, Frans: GOOD NATURED : THE ORIGINS OF RIGHT AND WRONG IN HUMANS AND OTHER ANIMALS (Harvard University Press, 1996)
Dennett, Daniel: DARWIN'S DANGEROUS IDEA (Simon & Schuster, 1995)
Dobzhansky, Theodosius: MANKING EVOLVING (1962)
Durham, William: COEVOLUTION (Stanford Univ Press, 1991)
Frisch, Karl von: THE DANCE LANGUAGE AND ORIENTATION OF BEES (Harvard University Press, 1967)
Goertzel, Ben: THE EVOLVING MIND (Gordon & Breach, 1993)
Gordon, Deborah: ANTS AT WORK (Free Press, 1999)
Gould, Stephen Jay: THE STRUCTURES OF EVOLUTIONARY THEORY (Harvard Univ Press, 2002)
Hamilton, William Donald: NARROW ROADS OF GENE LAND (W.H. Freeman, 1996)
Hamilton, Terrell: PROCESS AND PATTERN IN EVOLUTION (MacMillan, 1967)
Hauser, Marc: MORAL MINDS (Ecco, 2006)
Hinde, Robert: WHY GOOD IS GOOD (Routledge, 2002)
Hölldobler, Bert and Wilson, Edward-Osborne: THE SUPERORGANISM (2008)
Johnson, Cecil: MIGRATION AND DISPERSAL OF INSECTS BY FLIGHT (1969)
Jolly, Alison: LUCY's LEGACY (Harvard University Press, 1998)
Keller, Laurent: THE LIVES OF ANTS (Oxford Univ Press, 2009)
Kinji, Imanishi: THE WORLD OF LIVING THINGS (1941)
Kropotkin, Petr: MUTUAL AID (1902)
Levi-Strauss, Claude: LE CRU ET LE CUIT (1964)
Lewis-Williams, David & Pearce, David: INSIDE THE NEOLITHIC MIND (Thames & Hudson, 2005)
Lewontin, Richard: THE GENETIC BASIS OF EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE (Columbia University Press, 1974)
Lovelock, James: GAIA (Oxford University Press, 1979)
Margolis, Howard: SELFISHNESS, ALTRUISM, AND RATIONALITY (Univ of Chicago Press, 1984)
Margulis Lynn: WHAT IS LIFE? (Simon & Schuster, 1995)
Maynard-Smith, John: THEORY OF EVOLUTION (Cambridge University Press, 1975)
Maynard Smith, John: EVOLUTION AND THE THEORY OF GAMES (1982)
Mayr, Ernst: TOWARDS A NEW PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGY (Harvard Univ Press, 1988)
Maynard-Smith, John & Szathmary Eors: THE MAJOR TRANSITIONS IN EVOLUTION (W. H. Freeman, 1995)
Merezhkovsky, Konstantin: THEORY OF TWO PLASMS AS THE BASIS OF SYMBIOGENESIS (1909)
Miller, Geoffrey: THE MATING MIND (Doubleday, 2000)
Murchie, Guy: SEVEN MYSTERIES OF LIFE (Houghton Mifflin, 1978)
Nesse, Randolph & Williams, George: WHY WE GET SICK (Times Books, 1994)
Nowak, Martin: SUPERCOOPERATORS (Free Press, 2011)
Oparin, Alexander: THE ORIGIN OF LIFE (1924)
Premack, David: Original Intelligence: The Architecture of the Human Mind (McGraw-Hill, 2002)
Ridley Matt: EVOLUTION (Blackwell, 1993)
Ridley Matt: THE RED QUEEN (MacMillan, 1994)
Ridley Matt: THE ORIGINS OF VIRTUE (Viking, 1997)
Ridley Mark: THE COOPERATIVE GENE (Free Press, 2001)
Shermer, Michael: THE SCIENCE OF GOOD AND EVIL (New York Times, 2005)
Shlain Leonard: SEX, TIME, AND POWER (Penguin, 2003)
Sigmund, Karl: GAMES OF LIFE (Oxford University Press, 1994)
Sober, Elliot and Wilson, David Sloan: UNTO OTHERS (Harvard Univ Press, 1998)
Trivers, Roberts: SOCIAL EVOLUTION (Benjamin/Cummings, 1985)
Villarreal, Luis: VIRUSES AND THE EVOLUTION OF LIFE (ASM Press, 2004)
Von Frisch, Karl: THE DANCING BEES (1953)
Wallin, Ivan: SYMBIOTICISM AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES (1927)
Wheeler, William-Morton: SOCIAL LIFE AMONG THE INSECTS (1923)
Williams, George: ADAPTATION AND NATURAL SELECTION (Princeton University Press, 1966)
Wilson, Edward Osborne: SOCIOBIOLOGY (Belknap, 1975)
Wilson, Edward Osborne: CONSILIENCE (Knopf, 1998)
Holldobler, Bert & Wilson, Edward: THE SUPERORGANISM (Norton, 2008)
Wilson, Edward Osborne: THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE (Harvard University Press, 1992)
Wilson, Edward & Lumsden Charles: GENES, MIND AND CULTURE (Harvard Univ Press, 1981)
Wrangham, Richard: Catching Fire - How Cooking Made Us Human (Basic, 2009)
Wright, Robert: THE MORAL ANIMAL (Random House, 1994)
Wright, Robert: NON-ZERO (Pantheon, 2000)
Wynne-Edwards, Vero-Copner: ANIMAL DISPERSION IN RELATION TO SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR (Oliver & Boyd, 1962)
Wynne-Edwards, Vero-Copner: EVOLUTION THROUGH GROUP SELECTION (Blackwell, 1986)
Fonte: http://www.scaruffi.com/nature/sociobio.html |
Nenhum comentário:
Postar um comentário